“The Black Death” is generally used to define the outbreak of plague in Europe in the 14^th Century. Not only is the Black Death widely documented as one of the most damaging disease pandemics in European history, but in human history altogether. Estimates show that up to 60% of the population of Europe were killed by the Black Death.¹ Therefore, the pandemic marked the endings of the medieval period of history, and it is obvious that the Black Death would exist as a turning point in European history if due to nothing but its high death toll. The Black Death marks a turning point in a number of ways, in economic aspects as well as upheavals in religion and European society in general. One of the obvious and immediate changes in the post-pandemic fallout was the shortage of workers, with skilled as well as unskilled labour in high demand. Wages were raised, and many workers and peasants experienced a golden era in the wake of the plague due to this, along with a higher chance of being employed. Changes in religion were extreme; death was no longer to be celebrated in a community, but became a hasty and secluded process accompanied by the unwanted but necessary advent of mass graves, and in some ways the Black Death paved the way towards the 16^th century Reformation.² In this essay I will explain the details of how exactly the Black Death was a turning point in European history, and also covering the counterpoints to the titular question.

As is inherent in a sudden drop in a population, labour demand reached unprecedented levels after the disease had claimed its victims. The Black Death exists as an extreme example of this, due to the massive reduction in the population levels across Europe; as mentioned earlier, some estimates guess up to 60% of Europe had died within a relatively short space of time. Soon after the pandemic, many of the monarchies and city states in Western Europe created new legislations regulating wages and prices. However, when comparing the new legislations across nations that had been heavily afflicted by the disease, correlation or similarity is difficult to clearly see or define; these legislations do not strictly follow the simple necessities of a shortage of labour, but in many ways seem rather “confused”.³ An idea that has been put forth by historians is that these scattered and odd controlling legislations put into place by those in power across Europe was not symbolic of a simple labour shortage in a time of high demand (due to the decreased population); rather, it is symbolic of confusion, fear and anxiety in the wake of the Black Death.⁴

It is important to mention that the Black Death spurred a period of prosperity for many peasants and workers across Europe, mostly due to the shortage of labour which naturally led to higher wages and rates of employment. Peasants began to feed themselves while easily providing a surplus through their land work, and the yields of crops began to dramatically increase. This was, once again, due to the smaller population; fewer people to feed meant that there was a greater focus on using fertile lands to produce crops, which was beneficial to the peasantry as well as the economy more generally. Peasants were able to exploit the changes in the period following the Black Death, particularly the availability of land; however, the landowners were mostly losing rather than gaining during the same time frame with his income often fluctuating with inflation and suffering due to the sudden availability of land.⁵ Therefore, this period cannot be seen as an absolute period of prosperity, as the elite (despite being a minority of the overall population) mostly did experience loss rather than gain, financially. Economically speaking, during this late period of the medieval period, the beginnings of business competition can be seen, an early derivative of what now would be called free market capitalism. Ease of success for workers, traders and manufacturers meant greater competition; this necessitated more efficient and generally better business practise. This offered the average consumer in Europe better service, along with a wider range of goods to purchase, with both of these being at lower prices.⁶ A smaller population was left with the same amount of resources to be exploited and consumed, which meant (particularly for city dwellers) more disposable income was available; this, however, was accompanied with lowering prices for many products and crop yields. In this sense, due to inflation, peasants suffered along with their landowners – their yields of grain were often very low in price when sold, and this is a counterpoint for the “age of prosperity” argument. However, in terms of economics, the new situation that Europe found itself in after the Black Death necessitated adaptation; not only had Europe suddenly changed, but the economy was still regularly fluctuating. Efficient and short term investments became favourable, and this marked the turning point for business – the Black Death marked the arrival of the modern “businessman”.⁷

As mentioned earlier, religion saw much change during and immediately after the Black Death, as well as some effects carrying into the long term. Before the outbreak of the plague in 1348, death was to be embraced and celebrated, and in many ways welcomed. Those who were dying, and later in their funerals, would often be surrounded by those who knew them. The Black Death changed this drastically. Law dictated that only the immediate family of a deceased individual could attend a funeral ceremony, and many towns and cities forbade the traditional ringing of church bells to signify the death, as it was believed that this may have a negative impact on the large amount of people within earshot who were afflicted with plague.⁸ A writer in Italy documented how priests were able to make large amounts of money from the outbreak of plague, due to the rich (and often unafflicted) families that were willing to pay high prices for a priest to visit them; yet many members of the clergy contracted plague from their visitations to afflicted individuals, giving their lives in their ecclesiastical service.⁹ When looked at in detail, there is evidence that the Black Death marks a religious turning point and can be seen as an early indication of the forthcoming Reformation. Death became less of a celebrated and communal topic, and the revelation of the Church's willingness to help those who were afflicted with plague paved the way towards the Reformation. This was accompanied by the fact that the Church lost many of its supporters and “believers”; many Christians blamed the plague upon a supernatural doing, yet the Church failed to cure it or help those suffering – their religion had failed them.¹⁰ Therefore, turning points in religion were twofold; not only did Christianity have many followers that felt they had been “let down”, but support for the coming Reformation was beginning to develop across Europe. Along with changes in Christianity, the period following the Black Death is one of the first eras of documented religious persecution. Along with foreigners and beggars, Jews were targeted as a scapegoat for the plague, and this is turning point that would continue on well into the modern period.¹¹

Hedonism and the consumption of luxury goods, especially in Italy, was a theme of the period following the Black Death. Those that were able to profit during the fallout and capitalize upon the drastically reduced population in Europe took a great interest in consumerism across Europe. This can perhaps be marked as a turning point in history as the beginnings of consumerism, as the prosperity of many of those whom remained alive allowed consumerism and luxury trade to flourish. However, there was also much of the opposite; opposition and question to order. Many peasants, previously to the Black Death's outbreak, had relied on the manor and the agrarian lifestyle (and their place on the social hierarchy) as a matter of keeping order and stability. The outbreak of the Black Death disproved this idea. Uprisings and rebellions can be seen across Europe, and this is certainly a turning point as it marks the beginning of the age of rebellion; yet it is important to remember that there were other factors involved. In France, for example, extortionate tax rates were a key factor in the outbreaks of rebellion following the Black Death; plague was not the only factor at work.¹²

Overall, the Black Death was a turning point for the economy and, to an extent, marked the creation of the modern "businessman". The devastating death toll allowed more job opportunities for workers, as well as a higher demand for staple products and harvests like grain – raising prices and therefore the quality of life for those peasants who were able to keep any profits. A turning point for business and investment occurred, where focus shifted to short term investments due to the perceived instability and anxiety towards what the future may bring. However, focus is placed upon the idea of the “golden era” of prosperity in this late medieval period; it must also be remembered that the lives of peasants returned back to the state they were in before the Black Death within the next century, and in some cases they were worse off financially than before the disease broke out, questioning whether we can truly call this a turning point if it was to revert back in the future. Landowners also failed to benefit at all in most cases from the pandemic, despite the success of peasants. In terms of religion, there was a widespread sense that religion had failed for individuals and their families, and the way to the Reformation was paved during the Black Death and the period thereafter; this was also a turning point in the sense that a new sense of religious persecution (particularly towards Jews, due to their widespread role as merchants) occurring. Peasants in particular felt a sense of unease and anxiety towards their current and future day to day lives, and the manorial lifestyle no longer provided a sense of stability which encouraged outbreaks of rebellion across Europe; once again, a turning point in history. Although some of these turning points would later revert back to a similar state to their previous state, and some turning points involved other factors, these are all turning points in European history that the Black Death caused.

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Byrne, Joseph P. (2004) The Black Death (Greenwood Press, London)

1 Alchon, Suzanne Austin (2003) A Pest in the Land: New World Epidemics In A Global Perspective (University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque) p.21

2 Pennington, Ken “The Black Death and Religious Impact” (The Catholic University of America) retrieved from http://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/churchhistory220/LectureTen/BlackDeath/Religious%20Impact%20page.htm

3 Cohn, Samuel (2007) “After the Black Death: Labour Legislation and Attitudes Towards Labour in Late-Medieval Western Europe” The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 60, No. 3, pp. 457

4 Ibid

5 Routt, David “The Economic Impact of the Black Death” (University of Richmond) retrieved from https://eh.net/encyclopedia/the-economic-impact-of-the-black-death/

6 Ibid

7 Cohn, Samuel (2007) “After the Black Death”

8 Pennington, Ken “The Black Death and Religious Impact” retrieved from http://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/churchhistory220/LectureTen/BlackDeath/Religious%20Impact%20page.htm

9 Ibid

10 Byrne, Joseph P. (2006) Daily Life During The Black Death (Greenwood Press, London)

11 Byrne, Joseph P. (2004) The Black Death (Greenwood Press, London) pp.11

12 Pennington, Ken “The Black Death and Religious Impact” retrieved from http://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/churchhistory220/LectureTen/BlackDeath/Religious%20Impact%20page.htm

Bibliography

Alchon, Suzanne Austin (2003) A Pest in the Land: New World Epidemics In A Global Perspective (University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque)

Pennington, Ken “The Black Death and Religious Impact” (The Catholic University of America) retrieved from http://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/churchhistory220/LectureTen/BlackDeath/Religious%20Impact%20page.htm

Cohn, Samuel (2007) “After the Black Death: Labour Legislation and Attitudes Towards Labour in Late-Medieval Western Europe” The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 60, No. 3

Routt, David “The Economic Impact of the Black Death” (University of Richmond) retrieved from https://eh.net/encyclopedia/the-economic-impact-of-the-black-death/

Byrne, Joseph P. (2006) Daily Life During The Black Death (Greenwood Press, London)